The Warming of the Earth Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Warming of the Earth - Essay Example With the millions of people that call Earth 'home', the condition of the planet is one that many have sought to gather more information about, in order to understand the degree in which the planet may be in peril, as well as to what degree human actions would be responsible for it. "Throughout Earth's history, the climate has varied on many time and space scales. In that sense, climatic change is not new, and humanity has had to adapt to a constantly changing climate. Human action has itself had an impact on that climate. Until recently, the impact was local, but now there is concern that human activity, primarily through the emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, is leading to a world-wide climatic change which is more rapid and more extreme than any encountered during human history," (Robinson & Henderson-Sellers, p.267). While the extent at which the climate of the planet has varied, so has the impact of its inhabitants. As humans increase their usage of such resources, the rate of global warming is steadily increasing, in conjunction with such behavior patterns. As is the case with many di

USA Sports Law Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

USA Sports Law - Case Study Example Sports torts are "legal actions taken against professional athletes, teams, organizations and other parties in the sports field for a civil wrong done against and individual" (Epstein, 2008). In this case, Vikings will be accused of a tort against one of their spectators, Johnny Sharman. What Sharman will be fighting for is a recovery of the medical expenses incurred and other associated losses. This is because the injury was caused by the negligence on the part of Vikings. The courts may decide that Vikings owed a duty of care towards the fans that were attending their matches. Because Vikings breached that duty, the courts may rule that the defendant is liable to the damages that were caused by this negligence. There is the aspect of fans expectations. Sharman and his father, when they came to the field, expected to be protected from injuries arising from other spectators. It was the duty of the security agents of the club to refuse entry to the field fans who were drunk and who were liable to causing injuries to their fellow fans. This expectation may nullify the waiver on the back of the ticket. This expectation, though not stated on the ticket, was implied, or can be referred to as an officious bystander. The defence of Vikings will be that al fans "assumes the risk" of being injured during a game. This is expressly indicated on the back of the ticket, and a purchase of the ticket equals acceptance of the terms. As such, Vikings is partially liable or not liable at all. Sharman was negligent because he was not drunk, yet he went and sat together with drunkards who were likely to cause damage in the sport. Conclusion Vikings is either partially liable or not liable at all in this case. It is not fully liable given the fact that they had taken the precautions of erecting the wire mesh and inserting the waiver clause on the ticket. Sharman is partially or fully liable because the ticket indicates that he is liable, and he went to sit with drunkards. Question Two: Billy Rogers' NBA Draft Legal Memorandum Your recent problems, as Billy Rogers and an athlete at State University, stem from the fact that you are unable to attain the relevant academic qualifications for the forthcoming NBA draft. Your bane has been the refusal by the New School to admit you for the independent degree program, whereby you could have acquired a degree and qualified for the draft. It is my understanding that you have made three trials, all to no avail. It is only after the third trial that you became aware of the alleged irregularities with which your application was handled. Allegations of plagiarism and dropping of some topics from your dean led to the school admission officials' overturning of the decision

Mohsin Hamid’s The Reluctant Fundamentalist

Mohsin Hamid’s The Reluctant Fundamentalist Identity Crisis of Post- 9/11 Pakistani-American Immigrants: A Study of Mohsin Hamid’s The Reluctant Fundamentalist â€Å"Home is where your feet are, and may your heart be there too!† Uma Parmeshwaran Geographical dislocations and cross-blending of cultures often necessitate traumatic experiences for the immigrants. The multiplicity of ‘homes’, within conflictual boundaries, does not necessarily bridge this gap between ‘home’ –the culture of origin; and ‘world’ –the culture of adoption. Moreover, an unsettled migrant, ‘dwelling in displacement’, may find these two cultures becoming increasingly hostile to each other with the flow of time and space. Quite often, opportunities for work, trade, research and exploration has collectively motivated, both voluntary and involuntary, migration from the East to the West- accompanied by memories of one’s original ‘homeland’ and its history. After the early 1970s, large scale of immigration has shown a great mobility and adjustability, especially, from South Asia to America- a country who has stood on providing thicket of choices to the immigrants throughout the history. However, the twist of the 21st century brought about many changes in the world when September-11, 2001 attacks on the World Trade Centre and Pentagon endangered the lives of Asian immigrants in the U.S., most specifically Muslims, than it was ever before. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak in her seminal essay, Terror: A Speech After 9/111, explicates that â€Å"the traditional left in the U.S. and in Europe has by and large understood the events of September 11 as a battle between fundamentalism and the failure of democracy†, owing to which, the identity of Pakistanis living abroad had become even more precarious. Many who were unable to defend their own set of beliefs and tried to escape from the chaos, were termed â€Å"Pakis’ and increasingly profiled as ‘potential terrorists’. Since Septmeber-11, one has visibly witnessed a new wave of xenophobia in public, resulting into the closing of borders and an irrational suspicion of the ‘Otherâ⠂¬â„¢. In order to negotiate this disruption in the experience of the diasporic Muslim identity in the West, and to investigate the issues of identity, cross-culturality, post 9/11 ‘return-to-home’ and other disaporic tropes, my study focuses on the work of Pakistani expatriate writer Mohsin Hamid’s semi-autobiographical novel, The Reluctant Fundamentalist (2007)2 a tale of an immigrant’s angst and alienation in post 9/11 scenario as he attempts to acclimate to an adoptive homeland. The novel unfolds over a period of a day as the Pakistani narrator, Changez, unspools his life story to the overt addressee, an unnamed American tourist, in a Lahore tea shop of Od Anarkali district. In a one-sided dialogue, Changez reminiscences in detail his experience of living in the United States. Hailing from a well-to-do Pakistani family, Changez excels at Princeton University and becomes â€Å"immediately a New Yorker† after being recruited as an analyst under the prestigious valuation firm, Underwood Samson. Meanwhile, he tumbles into a romantic relationship with a fellow Princeton graduate named Erica, who is consumed by the mythology which she has constructed around her deceased boyfriend. His sentiment of belonging to New York high society, however, begins to stall after the events of September-11 2001 and the following U.S. invasion of Afghanistan. Over the ensuing years, ethnic slurs are tossed in his direction which ultimately act as a catalyst to expose Changez ’s â€Å"fundamental† self. Through the literary trope of migration, Hamid’s novel, in the backdrop of 9/11, illustrates a tale of dissolution and ‘return to home’, which becomes a vehicle for new understandings as the homeland is revalorised. Since September-11, 2001, identity politics and clash of cultures have acquired a special resonance in the public sphere of the Western societies, with regard to their diasporic population, particularly Muslim diasporas. According to Robin Cohen, diasporas are formed when considerable number of people move to a foreign land, either because of some mortifying experience or in search of economic opportunities. Muslim immigrants from South Asia, particularly Pakistan, have been living through a double pledge; on one hand they have to respond to the international political crises’ such as September-11, the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq etc., and on the other, they are categorized with the South Asian diasporic identity. The Reluctant Fundamentalist is a narrative of the conflict embodied in the personal dilemma of its protagonist to come to terms with the post 9/11 America and the ‘new identity’ imposed upon him. The basic postulate of ‘melting-pot’ theory that the American culture places on its newly arrived immigrants is amply dynamic; stressing homogeneity on religious as well as ethnic level. Despite of his foreign appearance, Changez ‘merges with the crowd and achieves a new individualized form of social mobility’ by assimilating into the host culture (Cohen: 24). Both Erica and Jim (Underwood’s managing director), notice a â€Å"foreignness† in Changez’s mannerism and demeanour that gives him advantage over others. â€Å"You’re a watchful guy. You know where that comes from? It comes from feeling out of place†, remarks Chris. But this initial excitement over a cosmopolitan way of life in New York is replaced by disillus ionment and scepticism offered by the events that followed 9/11. After watching the attacks on the Twin Towers in his hotel room in Manila, Changez realizes that suddenly a new identity that of a terrorist-look-alike is imposed on him, when he is first strip-searched and interrogated at the airport on his arrival in America. His sense of belonging changes overnight when his foreign appearance becomes a sign of ‘otherness’ for his social environment in New York City. Also, Erica’s neurosis and sudden estrangement from Changez are to be equated with the panic-ridden American society’s doubts towards the loyalties of the Middle Eastern immigrant. This unexpected â€Å"troubled relationship with the host society, suggesting a lack of acceptance at the least’’ is what Cohen also informs as one of the â€Å"common features† of a diaspora (Cohen: 26) that leads the protagonist to a wider examination of his relationship with the adopted home land. September-11 has already set new forces into motion which are redefining the immigrant’s relation to nation, diaspora and homeland. Changez has a decisive attribute in his search for identity that connects him across the post 9/11 continuum. The realization that his job is exploiting developing nations like his own native land, Pakistan, weighs on his conscience and causes him to anticipate what it means to be a member of the U.S. elite meritocracy. The post 9/11 scenario compels him to think about his ethnicity which he wants to retain. Stuart Hall indicates that â€Å"identity is a structured representation which achieves its positive through the narrow eye of the negative†. Disillusioned and disoriented, Changez does not find his identity through solidarity, but through resistance to the dominant culture. The novel seems to make a case for a crucial reality on which personal identity is based, constructed on the notion of ‘home’. According to Safran, â€Å"idealization of the ancestral home and the idea of return† incorporate experiences of several dispersed people who may feel alien ated from the â€Å"host society†. After being verbally abused on several occasions, Changez starts identifying himself with his original roots as he believes that his ethnic identity has become a victim of ethnocentrism in the hands of Americans. Built on the fault lines of East West relations, the novel offers essential cognizance to ‘diaspoic tropes’, such as the beard and the janissary, which highlight Changez’s marginal condition.

Media Essay -- essays research papers

Violence in the Media Violence in the media has been a growing problem ever since the emergence of mass media. One wonders however, how violence has become so prominent in our culture, more so than other countries. More minors are being involved in heinous crimes such as murders and armed robberies. Even play on the school ground is getting rougher. There are many factors that play into the increasing violence, such as over population, religious struggles, and race. One factor that plays into the increase of violence would be mass media. Mass media has the power to reach and influence almost every American. Radio, newspaper, and television are all means by which media reaches people. Television however, can be considered the most influential. Ninety-eight percent of Americans have a television in their household. When it first came out it was considered a novelty, there were only a few channels and the signal was not very clear. Now it is available through air broadcast, cable, or satellite. Television ha s become part of everyday life. With the growing fixation and attraction to violence in the media, children in today’s society are becoming more violent and aggressive than ever before. However, to obtain a true understanding of this problem we must look at all aspect that cause violence, and not just put all of the blame on the media. Nevertheless, we shouldn’t forget the number one violence causing aspect, the media. America was founded upon violence; and we have always been a society of power and control. This land was violently taken away from the American Indians. After this land was civilized, power and control was desired so much so that we rebelled against Great Britain to have this place for ourselves. We rebelled with violence and won. America ever since has always been the best at almost everything. America will achieve this most of the time thru violence. Both world wars and other political conflicts have been won by America using violence. Power achieved thru violence is one of America’s downfalls. People in America have the spirit that this country was founded upon, which has its negative and positive aspects. However, violence is finding its way into out culture everywhere, especially the television. When it comes to children and television, there is much debate. Many argue that television is healthy for children. It opens up th... ...oduction of television (Facts about Media). This only proves that people become more violent from watching television or more immune to it. Many people admitted after September 11th that when they watched the planes crash into the World Trade Centers that they were not fazed. This is because Hollywood has shown things crash and blow up so much that we confuse it with a Hollywood movie. When you watch something so much it becomes a part of your life. You do not know the difference of it being â€Å"real† or just â€Å"TV.† In conclusion, violence in the media has been a growing problem for quite awhile. Mass media has the power to reach and influence almost every American. Radio, newspaper, and television are all means by which media reaches people. Through means of mass media, mostly television, violence is reaching Americas youth and turning our culture into a violent hungry society. Television has great influence on children. It opens their eyes to the world and violence on TV has a devastating effect that continues throughout their adulthood. Even though we can’t blame all of our flaws and problems on the media we should at least focus and fix this problem before too much harm is done.

Altruism: Research perspectives from Current psychology Essay

Altruism which can also be termed as selflessness is a principle of practice that concerns the welfare of others. This is one of the traditional virtues that were upheld by several cultures, secular views and religious traditions. This is a malleable notion that is understood differently in many disciplines although the common denominator of all the definitions is the ideology of unidirectional helping character. Within the clinical setting, altruism is a value that nurses as professionals poses. Despite the enormous changes within the society and the ways in which training and education for nurses is delivered, nursing is highly underpinned by the beliefs and values of the profession. The values that have been evaluated as altruistic include care for others, academic performance and self-control. Altruism is the key characteristic that all nurses and the health professionals are expected to have (Puka, 1994). The definition of altruism biologically is the behavior that individual poses and increases fitness of another person while at the same time decreasing the fitness of the actor (Pallone, 1999). In this particular sense, it is totally different from the philosophical perspective whereby an action is only said to be altruistic if it was done with a conscious intention of helping another person. Within the nursing and health care fraternities, there are no restrictions to an altruistic act which is just but an act of helping an individual who as a problem or caring for others (Puka, 1994). The nursing and healthcare professionals possess the responsibility of being altruistic. This means that as professionals they have an ethical obligation give others what they need without any form of self-interest (Johnson, Larkin, & Saks, 1995). Most nurses who are altruistic will always make decisions totally that are in the best interest of the concerned patient. By being altruistic the nurses and healthcare professionals are being patient advocate, hence they will be practicing good ethics of nursing. During a moral code situation, the adrenaline of the nurses and healthcare professionals and in a life-saving mode. At this particular point they feel good being a nurse who can save the world as an individual, but when things doesn’t go right this particular feeling is put into a test and one keep asking him or herself questions(Johnson, Larkin, & Saks, 1995). Many new nurses have very hard time while making decisions concerning life and death. In most cases it takes a lot of maturity to get wisdom, knowledge and certitude. Ethics in the healthcare and nursing profession is what it always drives the process of making decisions whether good or bad. Altruism as one of the most critical code of ethics should always be involved in any other decision that is made (Johnson, Larkin, & Saks, 1995). Nurses are also put in a fix that they have to always respect the cultural beliefs and the values of others. Just because nurses sometimes think they know the right thing to do, does not actually make it totally right. It is altruistic for the nurses and other health care professionals to honor and respect the wishes and beliefs of the patients. It is unfortunate that they decisions that are made by the patients and their families are mainly driven by either grief of total lack of understanding (Puka, 1994). Conclusion                      Altruism as part of ethics practiced by nurses encompasses the interpretation of an individual. It is based totally on the values and morals that individuals possess. Although the Nurse Practice Act have very good guidelines for how individuals should act it does not absolve individuals from making personal decisions concerning the issues at hand. References Pallone, N. J. (1999). Altruism, narcissism, comity: Research perspectives from Current psychology. New Brunswick, N.J: Transaction Publishers. Johnson, T., Larkin, G., & Saks, M. (1995).  Health professions and the state in Europe. London: Rutledge. Bailey, P. A., Carpenter, D. R., & Harrington, P. A. (1999).  Integrating community service into nursing education: A guide to service-learning. New York, NY: Springer Pub. Co. Puka, B. (1994).  Reaching out: Caring, altruism, and prosocial behavior. New York: Garland. Source document

Formation and Maintenance of Relationship

Describe and evaluate the formation and maintenance of relationships In the field of psychology, the most common relationships are classified into 3 types: * Romantic relationship * Social relationships (Friendship) * Family relationship Romantic relationships Formation: According to the Reward/ Need satisfaction theory of Bryne and Clore in the 1970s, some romantic relationship may develop due to their satisfaction and happiness they achieve when spending time with the other partner. Most people when being asked why they are attracted to their partners would reply back with answers like attentive, attractive, supporting, caring, etc.This suggests that we are more likely to be attracted to people that we are satisfied or gratified to be with. Most stimuli in our lives can be classified into negative and rewarding ones. We tend to search for rewarding stimuli and avoid the negative stimuli. The things that we are most likely going to find rewarding tend to reflect our unsatisfied need s such as the need for company, financial security, an attractive partner and so on. Mutual attractions usually occurs when one meets the other’s needs although one might need company and the other in search for financial security. Maintenance:What keeps relationships going? Some relationship never seem to last and have any passion in while some can be extremely long-lasting and may even last for a life-time. Maintaining relationships was never a one-way process, it involves and requires the interaction of both the participants, each with their own needs and expectations. The partners not only have to serve their own needs but also satisfy the needs of their partners. The social exchange theory by Thibaut and Kelley in 1959: In terms of profit and loss, individuals always attempt to maximise the profit and minimise the effort needed.Rewards that may be received in a relationship can vary from care, money, companionship and sex. The effort needed that is the costs may vary fro m financial investments, time spent and attention given. The reward minus the costs is equal to the outcome or the profitability of the relationship. The stress of a relationship is dependent on the profitability of the relationship. Equilty theory of Walster et al. in 1978: This theory suggests that the most successful and longterm relationships are ones that have a balanced giving and receiving.It had a central assumption that everyone long for fairness in their relationship and when one puts a lot of effort into the relationship but gets little in return, they would feel unfair and inequity would create stress in the relationship, The greater the unfairness and inequity is, the more distress it would create in the relationship. Other theories: Other theories such as the one put forward by Steil and Wletman in 1991 suggests that men and women may judge the equity of a relationship more differently.Studies have shown that when the income is mainly from the male side, the career wou ld become a more important priority and it is usually agreed by both sides. However, when the female earn more than the male, neither partner rated their career as priority. Social relationships: Friendship Interpersonal psychology research object: Psychological relationship between people, is something much deeper than behavior, the relevance and necessity of the law of the behavior of the individual exchanges.Interpersonal theory of psychological research tasks: Is to fully reveal and clarify the general rules and mechanisms of interpersonal development, analyze the theoretical basis of interpersonal figure out individual and personal interaction of individuals and groups, and people in the system of interpersonal functioning explore interpersonal attitudes, social perception, self-perception, psychological control, interpersonal influence, interpersonal attraction, interpersonal conflict and group behavior, interpersonal.To establish interpersonal psychology unique concepts, term inology, category system, to provide a basis for further improve interpersonal psychology scientific theoretical system, accumulation of material for the enrichment and development of psychological theory and methods, this is a long and arduous job. At the same time, but also the interpersonal psychology in China as soon as possible, that is suitable for China's national conditions, after selection – intake – the Chinese way, to establish the actual interpersonal psychology system in line with China's national conditions for reform and opening up.Task of the interpersonal psychological research practice: (1) the right to deal with interpersonal relationships. (2) to adjust the interpersonal relationships. (3) continue to improve interpersonal relationships. (4) the development of new relationships. (5) correct deformity relationships. Interpersonal relations and social relations: (1) interpersonal and social relations are two different concepts, can not be confused.Int erpersonal relationships as a social relationship between the role and any other kind of social relations, is bound by the constraints of the relations of production, but also by other social relations, and thus should be examined in the interpersonal relationships within the social relations. At the same time, we should also see interpersonal relationships is the true reality of social relations phenomenon. 2) interpersonal and objective social relations is generated at the same time, interpersonal outset by the constraints impact of social relations, social relations exist in the relationships among Of course, social relations with the interpersonal concept of two-level has different theoretical generalization force. Emphasize the reality of the relationship between the overall aspects of non-personalized social relations, interpersonal relationships is more individual, personalized to show the reality aspect.Relationships are formed on the basis of the social relations, but not t he same thing. Social relations is the object of sociological research, which on the one hand to study the relationship of the human and material; the other hand, social relations, including the relationship between the ideological, legal relationship, the moral relationship. While interpersonal interpersonal direct psychological relations, it is constrained by social relations, is a reflection of social relations, but it has a certain relative independence.Relationships are a product of social relations: (1) any kind of interpersonal is always social relations. (2) the fundamental nature of human relationships is determined by the nature of the social patterns of social relations of production. (3) changes in interpersonal relationships is determined by changes in social relations. (4) the complexity of the personal relationships is determined by the complexity of the social relations. Necessity of interpersonal Research:Not exist in isolation, the links with the community, is boun d to a variety of relationships, including family relationships, friend relationship, Jacky (students) relationship, the teacher-student relationship, employment relationship, comrades relations, colleagues and leadership and leadership relations. With the thoughts, feelings, and behavior in the process of interaction of these relationships, interaction and communication with others, these relations between different objects will point to different directions.Healthy relationship is to attract and cooperation; but because of the environmental impact of personality factors, psychological factors and other reasons, many people deal with bad interpersonal relationships will inevitably be caught in the contradictions and pain, the relationship between the parties do not have enough wisdom to resolve resulting inner conflict, will be plunged into a crisis of human relationships, even interpersonal psychological barriers, thereby reducing their life happiness index.Important links between interpersonal and psychological health, good interpersonal comes from a healthy state of mind, self-confident, optimistic, calm, fraternity, to help others, humility, tolerance, and so on, these good quality behavior in interpersonal play a very good role in promoting, healthy relationships can also make people relieve stress, calm down, people's personal development, physical and mental health also played a positive role.On the other hand, problems in interpersonal relationships, will be more or less there some psychological problems, even psychological barriers interpersonal, in the interaction between people, they express more conceited, self-esteem negative psychological interference of others, suspicious, sensitive, jealous, resulting interpersonal again and again thwarted. Therefore, to study the psychology of interpersonal relationships came into being.

The Early, High and Late Middle Ages

The Early, High and Late Middle Ages Although in some languages the Middle Ages are labeled in the singular (its le moyen age in French and das mittlere Alter in German), it is difficult to think of the era as anything other than ages plural. This is in part because of the numerous subjects encompassed by this long period of time, and in part because of the chronological sub-eras within the era. Generally, the medieval era is divided into three periods: the Early Middle Ages, the High Middle Ages, and the Late Middle Ages. Like the Middle Ages itself, each of these three periods lacks hard and fast parameters. Early Middle Ages The Early Medieval Era is sometimes still called the Dark Ages. This epithet originated with those who wanted to compare the earlier period unfavorably with their own so-called enlightened age. Modern scholars who have actually studied the time period would not so readily use the label, since passing judgment on the past interferes with a true understanding of the time and its people. Yet the term is still somewhat apt for the simple reason that we know relatively little about events and material culture in those times. This era is often considered, to begin with, the fall of Rome and end sometime in the 11th century. It encompasses the reigns of ​Charlemagne, Alfred the Great, and the Danish Kings of England; it saw frequent Viking activity, the Iconoclastic Controversy, and the birth and rapid expansion of Islam in Northern Africa and Spain. Over these centuries, Christianity spread throughout much of Europe, and the Papacy evolved into a powerful political entity. The Early Middle Ages are also sometimes referred to as Late Antiquity. This time period is usually viewed as beginning in the third century and stretching to the seventh century, and sometimes as late as the eighth. Some scholars see Late Antiquity as distinct and separate from both the Ancient world and the Medieval one; others see it as a bridge between the two where significant factors from both eras overlap. High Middle Ages The High Medieval Era is the period of time that seems to typify the Middle Ages best. Usually beginning with the 11th century, some scholars end it in 1300 and others extend it for as much as another 150 years. Even limiting it to a mere 300 years, the High Middle Ages saw such significant events as Norman conquests in Britain and Sicily, the earlier Crusades, the Investiture Controversy and the signing of the Magna Carta. By the end of the 11th century, nearly every corner of Europe had become Christianized (with the notable exception of much of Spain), and the Papacy, long established as a political force, was in constant struggle with some secular governments and alliance with others. This period is often what we think of when someone mentions medieval culture. It is sometimes referred to as the flowering of medieval society, thanks to an intellectual renaissance in the 12th century, such notable philosophers as Peter Abelard and Thomas Aquinas, and the establishment of such Universities as those in Paris, Oxford, and Bologna. There was an explosion of stone castle-building and the construction of some of the most magnificent cathedrals in Europe. In terms of material culture and political structure, the High Middle Ages saw medievalism at its peak. What we call feudalism today was firmly established in Britain and parts of Europe; trade in luxury items, as well as staples, flourished; towns were granted charters of privilege and even established anew by ​feudal lords with alacrity, and a well-fed population was beginning to burgeon. By the end of the thirteenth century, Europe was at an economic and cultural height, perched at the verge of a downturn.​ Late Middle Ages The end of the Middle Ages can be characterized as a transformation from the medieval world to the early modern one. It is often considered to begin in 1300, though some scholars look at the mid- to late-fifteenth century as the beginning of the end. Once again, the end of the end is debatable, ranging from 1500 to 1650. Cataclysmic and awesome events of the 14th century include the Hundred Years War, the Black Death, the Avignon Papacy, the Italian Renaissance, and the Peasants Revolt. The 15th century saw Joan of Arc burned at the stake, the fall of Constantinople to the Turks, the Moors were driven from Spain and the Jews expelled, the Wars of the Roses and the voyage of Columbus to the New World. The 16th century was wracked by the Reformation and blessed by the birth of Shakespeare. The 17th century, rarely included within the medieval era, saw the Great Fire of London, a rash of witch hunts, and the Thirty Years War. Though famine and disease had always been a lurking presence, the Late Medieval era saw the horrific results of both in abundance. The Black Death, preceded by famine and overpopulation, wiped out at least a third of Europe and marked the end of the prosperity that had characterized the high medieval era. The Church, once so highly respected by the general populace, suffered reduced status when some of its priests refused to minister to the dying during the plague and sparked resentment when it enjoyed enormous profits in bequests from plague victims. More and more towns and cities were wresting control of their own governments from the hands of the clergy or nobility that had previously ruled them. And the reduction in population triggered economic and political changes that would never be reversed. High medieval society had been characterized by the corporation. The nobility, the clergy, the peasantry, the guilds- all were group entities that saw to the welfare of their members but put the welfare of the community, and their own community in particular, first. Now, as was reflected in the Italian Renaissance, a new regard for the value of the individual was growing. By no means was late medieval nor early modern society a culture of equality, but the seeds of the idea of human rights had been sown. The viewpoints examined in the previous pages are by no means the only ways to look at the Middle Ages. Anyone studying a smaller geographical area, such as Great Britain or the Iberian Peninsula, will much more easily discover start- and end-dates for the era. Students of art, literature, sociology, militaria, and any number of subjects will each find specific turning points pertinent to their topic of interest. And I dont doubt that you, too, will see a particular event that strikes you as possessed of such towering importance that it defines the beginning or end of the medieval era for you. The comment has been made that all historical eras are arbitrary definitions and, therefore, how the Middle Ages is defined really has no significance. I believe that the true historian will find something lacking in this approach. Defining historical eras not only makes each era more accessible to the newcomer, it helps the serious student identify interrelated events, recognize patterns of cause and effect, understand the influence of a periods culture on those who lived within it and, ultimately, find a deeper meaning in the story of our past. So make your own choice, and reap the benefits of approaching the Middle Ages from your own unique perspective. Whether you are a serious scholar following the path of higher education or a devoted amateur like me, any conclusions you can support with facts will not only have validity but will help you make the Middle Ages your own. And do not be surprised if your view of Medieval times changes over the course of your studies. My own outlook has certainly evolved in the last 25 years, and will most likely continue to do so as long as the Middle Ages continues to hold me in its thrall.